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   "text": "Artificial intelligence cannot be held personally liable for damage it causes because national and international law do not currently recognize it as a subject of law, so compensation must be forced through existing provisions never designed for it.",
   "abstract": "However, national and international law do not (currently) recognize AI as a subject of law. Without legal personality, AI cannot be personally liable for damages.",
   "citation": "Wulf A. Kaal, Erik P.M. Vermeulen, Venture Capital as Dynamic Regulation of Disruptive Innovation (2016). SSRN: https://ssrn.com/abstract=2740477",
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   "text": "Because artificial intelligence is not recognized as a subject of law in national or international law, it has no legal personality and therefore cannot be personally liable for damages it causes.",
   "abstract": "provisions in the existing regulatory framework. However, national and international law do not (currently) recognize AI as a subject of law. Without legal personality, AI cannot be personally liable for damages.63 With autonomous AI playing an expanding role in",
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   "text": "Because neither national nor international law recognizes artificial intelligence as a subject of law, AI has no legal personality and therefore cannot itself be held liable for the damages it causes.",
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   "text": "It is feasible that in the not too distant future an artificial intelligence will hold an independent board seat with voting authority and be trusted to make smarter, data-driven choices than human directors.",
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   "text": "Critics who dismiss artificial intelligence on boards as science fiction not worth engaging are wrong: AI on boards is a real prospect, and technologies such as blockchain-based smart contracts will both disrupt corporate governance and supply solutions to it.",
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   "text": "The majority of private fund advisers that deploy blockchain technology, artificial intelligence, and big data in their operations or strategy charge their investors lower fees, even though not all blockchain enabled funds charge per transaction fees.",
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   "text": "In the Numerai model, the use of artificial intelligence achieves efficiency and optimum capital allocation by reducing overhead costs, because there is no cost of human capital.",
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   "text": "The rise of blockchain applications in private investment funds can exacerbate the industry's already changing fee structure.",
   "abstract": "The paper has illustrated that the rise of blockchain applications in private investment funds can exacerbate the already changing fee structure of the industry.",
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   "text": "Anecdotal evidence suggests that the majority of private fund advisers who use blockchain, artificial intelligence, and big data in their operations or strategy charge substantially lower fees than advisers who do not use these technologies.",
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   "text": "Whether private investment funds succeed in disintermediating banks through blockchain implementation depends on their ability to find scale opportunities.",
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   "text": "The Numerai model reduces overhead costs because there is no cost of human capital, and it eliminates barriers to entry because participating users need neither capital nor any special finance or data knowledge.",
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   "text": "Supervised machine learning currently depends on labelled data produced by micro task work, because unsupervised and reinforcement learning remain more complex and less relied upon for AI development.",
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   "text": "Micro task platform systems carry significant limitations that hold back the evolution of AI itself, so platform design is a bottleneck on AI progress rather than a peripheral concern.",
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   "text": "Building lawyers' capacity to think about the social and ethical implications of code is both essential and inevitable, but saying anything sensible about the ethics of technology first requires understanding coding and coders.",
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   "text": "Hedge funds that base their strategies on artificial intelligence have delivered better results than the industry average over the preceding five years.",
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   "text": "In the Numerai model, using artificial intelligence to synthesize competing data scientist models into a meta model raises efficiency and improves capital allocation by reducing overhead costs.",
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   "text": "Artificial intelligence and machine learning are used far more heavily for idea generation and portfolio optimization than for execution: two thirds of surveyed funds use them to generate trading ideas and optimize portfolios, while only just over a quarter use automation to execute trades.",
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   "text": "Adoption of artificial intelligence in hedge funds remains partial rather than total: more than four out of ten survey respondents still rely on conventional human thinking to guide their investment processes.",
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   "text": "Whether deep learning can identify particular features of a stock that would be profitable remains contested rather than settled.",
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   "citation": "Kaal, Financial Technology and Hedge Funds (2019). SSRN: https://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=3409548",
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   "text": "Most large private equity and hedge fund advisers have not yet even considered combining blockchain with big data and artificial intelligence, leaving first mover efficiency gains to smaller competitors.",
   "abstract": "Most large fund advisers in the private equity and hedge fund industry have not yet considered implementing blockchain technology in combination with big data applications and artificial intelligence.",
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   "text": "Suggestions that artificial intelligence will solve the rigidity of centralized reputation systems are misguided and will fail for the same reason, because neural networks are merely a complex mathematical architecture for statistical regression, which is always extremely unreliable when applied to novel situations.",
   "abstract": "Suggestions that AI will solve these problems are misguided, and will fail for the same reason. Neural networks are merely a complex mathematical ar- chitecture for performing statistical regression, which is always extremely unreliable when applied to novel situations.",
   "citation": "Craig Calcaterra, Wulf A. Kaal, Future of Decentralization (2021). SSRN: https://ssrn.com/abstract=3782201",
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   "text": "Centralized algorithmic automation, defined as artificially intelligent systems taking over core functions in human society, poses perhaps the greatest threat to decentralization.",
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  {
   "@type": "Claim",
   "@id": "https://wulfkaal.github.io/claims/5886342-003",
   "identifier": "kaal:claim:5886342-003",
   "text": "The Codex is positioned as a private universal standard rather than state legislation: it supplies legal certainty and enforceability for digital systems ranging from blockchain and AI to quantum computing, so that platforms, businesses and users can operate across borders and technologies.",
   "abstract": "The UDLC is intended to serve as a private universal standard for legal certainty and enforceability in digital systems — from blockchain and AI to quantum computing — providing digital platforms, businesses and users with the tools they need to operate securely and legally across borders and technologies.",
   "citation": "Furrer Andreas, Wulf A. Kaal, Stephan D. Meyer, Universal Digital Law Codex (UDLC) (2025). SSRN: https://ssrn.com/abstract=5886342",
   "datePublished": "2025",
   "claim_type": "design",
   "confidence": "asserted",
   "is_failure_mode": false,
   "scope_conditions": [
    "private standard adopted by digital systems, not enacted by a legislature"
   ],
   "source_pdf_sha256": "dc456a1ce2ea4a356dbcb35dc900ec36be94b8c9b6da4a2c8c268d6301f66359",
   "status": "current"
  },
  {
   "@type": "Claim",
   "@id": "https://wulfkaal.github.io/claims/5886342-011",
   "identifier": "kaal:claim:5886342-011",
   "text": "Identity under the Codex is not limited to persons: it is the unique existence of a subject, of a digital or physical object, of data or of a programme, expressly including AI systems, so machine agents can hold an identity within the framework.",
   "abstract": "ital and physical object, data, or programme includ- ing but not limited to AI-Systems.",
   "citation": "Furrer Andreas, Wulf A. Kaal, Stephan D. Meyer, Universal Digital Law Codex (UDLC) (2025). SSRN: https://ssrn.com/abstract=5886342",
   "datePublished": "2025",
   "claim_type": "definitional",
   "confidence": "asserted",
   "is_failure_mode": false,
   "scope_conditions": [],
   "source_pdf_sha256": "dc456a1ce2ea4a356dbcb35dc900ec36be94b8c9b6da4a2c8c268d6301f66359",
   "status": "current"
  }
 ],
 "description": "25 claims in the published works of Wulf A. Kaal carry the concept tag 'artificial-intelligence'. Derived node: a roster, not an adjudicated definition."
}