{
 "@context": "https://schema.org",
 "@type": "DefinedTerm",
 "@id": "https://wulfkaal.github.io/entities/distributed-systems",
 "identifier": "kaal:entity:distributed-systems",
 "name": "Distributed systems",
 "termCode": "distributed-systems",
 "inDefinedTermSet": {
  "@id": "https://wulfkaal.github.io/entities/index.json"
 },
 "author": {
  "@type": "Person",
  "name": "Wulf A. Kaal",
  "identifier": "https://orcid.org/0000-0003-0757-275X"
 },
 "dateModified": "2026-07-29",
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 "sha256": "f8280f9d668b6cf7fcf340fbf41b4b2368c6dd566abb7f752779917a464db9b7",
 "additionalProperty": [
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   "name": "status",
   "value": "derived"
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   "value": 2
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   "value": [
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 "subjectOf": [
  {
   "@type": "Claim",
   "@id": "https://wulfkaal.github.io/claims/3125827-018",
   "identifier": "kaal:claim:3125827-018",
   "text": "In a distributed system, which cannot achieve constant perfect communication between nodes, it is never possible to determine with certainty that a block producer was censoring particular transactions rather than simply being unaware of them.",
   "abstract": "In a distributed system--which cannot achieve constant perfect communication between nodes--we can never certainly determine that a block producer was censoring certain transactions, instead of simply not being aware of them.",
   "citation": "Craig Calcaterra, Wulf A. Kaal, Secure Proof of Stake Protocol (2018). SSRN: https://ssrn.com/abstract=3125827",
   "datePublished": "2018",
   "claim_type": "failure",
   "confidence": "argued",
   "is_failure_mode": true,
   "scope_conditions": [
    "imperfect communication between nodes",
    "block producers with discretion over transaction inclusion"
   ],
   "source_pdf_sha256": "598d9bd95e4af7a0a35328677c6bfc069f69f2e32c30c720b3a0be98a23a40cb",
   "status": "current"
  },
  {
   "@type": "Claim",
   "@id": "https://wulfkaal.github.io/claims/3411897-018",
   "identifier": "kaal:claim:3411897-018",
   "text": "It is the completely decentralized network connectivity via the internet, not blockchain's digital signatures, that provides the greatest protection against fraud, because connectivity puts multiple copies of the chain in the hands of all participants.",
   "abstract": "While blockchain's use of digital signatures helps establish the identity and authenticity of the parties involved in the transaction, it is the completely decentralized network connectivity via the internet that allows the most protection against fraud.",
   "citation": "Wulf A. Kaal, Decentralization - Past, Present, and Future (2019). SSRN: https://ssrn.com/abstract=3411897",
   "datePublished": "2019",
   "claim_type": "mechanism",
   "confidence": "argued",
   "is_failure_mode": false,
   "scope_conditions": [
    "applies to fully distributed public blockchains"
   ],
   "source_pdf_sha256": "82f0aea026b3e3a526ec51bc073b3b864dc06cd9083ff9c54c550037045edaa9",
   "status": "current"
  }
 ],
 "description": "2 claims in the published works of Wulf A. Kaal carry the concept tag 'distributed-systems'. Derived node: a roster, not an adjudicated definition."
}