{
 "@context": "https://schema.org",
 "@type": "DefinedTerm",
 "@id": "https://wulfkaal.github.io/entities/liability",
 "identifier": "kaal:entity:liability",
 "name": "Liability",
 "termCode": "liability",
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 },
 "author": {
  "@type": "Person",
  "name": "Wulf A. Kaal",
  "identifier": "https://orcid.org/0000-0003-0757-275X"
 },
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   "value": 11
  },
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   "value": 10
  },
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   "name": "year_span",
   "value": [
    "2016",
    "2025"
   ]
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  {
   "@type": "Claim",
   "@id": "https://wulfkaal.github.io/claims/2740477-007",
   "identifier": "kaal:claim:2740477-007",
   "text": "Artificial intelligence cannot be held personally liable for damage it causes because national and international law do not currently recognize it as a subject of law, so compensation must be forced through existing provisions never designed for it.",
   "abstract": "However, national and international law do not (currently) recognize AI as a subject of law. Without legal personality, AI cannot be personally liable for damages.",
   "citation": "Wulf A. Kaal, Erik P.M. Vermeulen, Venture Capital as Dynamic Regulation of Disruptive Innovation (2016). SSRN: https://ssrn.com/abstract=2740477",
   "datePublished": "2016",
   "claim_type": "failure",
   "confidence": "argued",
   "is_failure_mode": true,
   "scope_conditions": [
    "current state of national and international law",
    "damage caused by autonomous AI"
   ],
   "source_pdf_sha256": "c72871b76fa2ad5a8a69ee8d3defc8f64e624be9052ce763e79cf6c58883f726",
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  {
   "@type": "Claim",
   "@id": "https://wulfkaal.github.io/claims/2834531-002",
   "identifier": "kaal:claim:2834531-002",
   "text": "Because neither national nor international law recognizes artificial intelligence as a subject of law, AI has no legal personality and therefore cannot itself be held liable for the damages it causes.",
   "abstract": "Because national and international law do not currently recognize AI as a subject of law, AI has no legal personality and as such cannot be held personally liable for damages.",
   "citation": "Mark Fenwick, Wulf A. Kaal, Erik P. M. Vermeulen, Regulation Tomorrow What Happens When Technology Is Faster Than the Law (2017). SSRN: https://ssrn.com/abstract=2834531",
   "datePublished": "2017",
   "claim_type": "mechanism",
   "confidence": "asserted",
   "is_failure_mode": true,
   "scope_conditions": [
    "under the legal frameworks in force as of 2017"
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   "@type": "Claim",
   "@id": "https://wulfkaal.github.io/claims/2922176-029",
   "identifier": "kaal:claim:2922176-029",
   "text": "Corporate lawyers and governance experts still discourage executives from communicating in a personalized, speech-like way, particularly on social media, out of fear of market misunderstanding and subsequent liability.",
   "abstract": "Corporate lawyers and corporate governance experts currently still discourage a more personalized and speech-like way of communicating for corporate executives.",
   "citation": "Mark Fenwick, Wulf A. Kaal, Erik P. M. Vermeulen, The ‘Unmediated’ and ‘Tech-Driven’ Corporate Governance of Today's Winning Companies (2017). SSRN: https://ssrn.com/abstract=2922176",
   "datePublished": "2017",
   "claim_type": "failure",
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    "current advisory practice as of 2017"
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  {
   "@type": "Claim",
   "@id": "https://wulfkaal.github.io/claims/3995709-023",
   "identifier": "kaal:claim:3995709-023",
   "text": "There is little or no recourse for clients when reviewed code proves to be flawed even after functionality and quality review.",
   "abstract": "Moreover, there is little or no recourse for clients in cases in which the code proved to be flawed even after functionality and quality review.",
   "citation": "Wulf A. Kaal, How DAOs Optimize Open-Source Code Reviews and Create Open-Source Standards (2021). SSRN: https://ssrn.com/abstract=3995709",
   "datePublished": "2021",
   "claim_type": "failure",
   "confidence": "asserted",
   "is_failure_mode": true,
   "scope_conditions": [
    "the existing code review and audit market"
   ],
   "source_pdf_sha256": "6d77dbfb15ee86080bfde0b98089180cabafeb6defdf0f05eaaeb3cb99871e89",
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   "@type": "Claim",
   "@id": "https://wulfkaal.github.io/claims/4529715-022",
   "identifier": "kaal:claim:4529715-022",
   "text": "Decentralized organizations carry inherent risks that require establishing a legal entity, and establishing that legal entity inherently contradicts the notion of decentralization.",
   "abstract": "Third, decentralized organizations themselves come with inherent risks that require establishing a legal entity, which inherently contradicts the notion of decentralization.",
   "citation": "Wulf A. Kaal, Josh Bykowski, Decentralized Autonomous Organizations (DAO) – A Market Meta Analysis (2023). SSRN: https://ssrn.com/abstract=4529715",
   "datePublished": "2023",
   "claim_type": "failure",
   "confidence": "argued",
   "is_failure_mode": true,
   "scope_conditions": [
    "decentralized insurance organizations"
   ],
   "source_pdf_sha256": "2d71961e8c449afbeaf45ca4f53de8a575d45c77d6960b767d3d1d0874f296b5",
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  {
   "@type": "Claim",
   "@id": "https://wulfkaal.github.io/claims/4734750-020",
   "identifier": "kaal:claim:4734750-020",
   "text": "Clients have little or no recourse when reviewed code turns out to be flawed even after a functionality and quality review has been performed and paid for.",
   "abstract": "Moreover, there is little or no recourse for clients in cases in which the code proved to be flawed even after functionality and quality review.",
   "citation": "Wulf A. Kaal, Code Review DAO (2024). SSRN: https://ssrn.com/abstract=4734750",
   "datePublished": "2024",
   "claim_type": "failure",
   "confidence": "asserted",
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   "@type": "Claim",
   "@id": "https://wulfkaal.github.io/claims/4796714-006",
   "identifier": "kaal:claim:4796714-006",
   "text": "Web3 data attestation supports a governance model that assigns liability for AI misuse to identifiable individuals rather than distributing the burden across the whole community, which is what makes it a workable answer to AI related ethical dilemmas.",
   "abstract": "By ensuring accountability at the individual level, rather than burdening the entire community, this proposed model for AI governance within Web3 offers a promising avenue to address ethical dilemmas associated with AI applications.",
   "citation": "Wulf A. Kaal, AI Governance (2024). SSRN: https://ssrn.com/abstract=4796714",
   "datePublished": "2024",
   "claim_type": "design",
   "confidence": "argued",
   "is_failure_mode": false,
   "scope_conditions": [
    "requires cryptographic data attestation and verifiable identity",
    "applies to liability arising from AI misuse and uploaded content"
   ],
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  {
   "@type": "Claim",
   "@id": "https://wulfkaal.github.io/claims/5095633-029",
   "identifier": "kaal:claim:5095633-029",
   "text": "DAO-based governance introduces unresolved uncertainty about liability and legal accountability when personal data crosses international boundaries, and a mismatch between platform governance and regulatory mandates produces legal liability that erodes user trust.",
   "abstract": "decentralized governance models, such as DAOs, introduce uncertainties regarding liability and legal accountability when personal data is exchanged across international boundaries. A mismatch between platform governance and regulatory mandates can result in legal liabilities, undermining user trust",
   "citation": "Wulf A. Kaal, Artificial Intelligence The Final Frontier (2025). SSRN: https://ssrn.com/abstract=5095633",
   "datePublished": "2025",
   "claim_type": "failure",
   "confidence": "argued",
   "is_failure_mode": true,
   "scope_conditions": [
    "cross-border exchange of personal data",
    "GDPR-style regulatory regimes"
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   "@id": "https://wulfkaal.github.io/claims/5541658-016",
   "identifier": "kaal:claim:5541658-016",
   "text": "Keeping judges ultimately accountable through a human-in-the-loop review of AI generated reasoning, as practiced in Shenzhen, does not fully resolve the accountability problem in AI assisted adjudication.",
   "abstract": "Shenzhen case study illustrates that judges retain ultimate accountability, revising AI-generated reasoning to ensure accurate judgments, but this human-in-the-loop approach does not fully resolve the issue.",
   "citation": "Wulf A. Kaal, Morgan A. Gray, The Evolving Role of Artificial Intelligence in Law (2025). SSRN: https://ssrn.com/abstract=5541658",
   "datePublished": "2025",
   "claim_type": "failure",
   "confidence": "argued",
   "is_failure_mode": true,
   "scope_conditions": [
    "judicial settings where AI drafts or supports reasoning that a human judge then reviews"
   ],
   "source_pdf_sha256": "e543a2d698fcd522d4d02e034cc9ee1344d0015d2c824b40b9e05ab7c0728c60",
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   "@type": "Claim",
   "@id": "https://wulfkaal.github.io/claims/5886342-035",
   "identifier": "kaal:claim:5886342-035",
   "text": "Internal liability among DAO members is capped: members are liable towards each other only up to the amount of their agreed contributions, unless the DAO Agreement stipulates otherwise.",
   "abstract": "(1) DAO Members are liable towards each other only up to the amount of their agreed contributions, unless",
   "citation": "Furrer Andreas, Wulf A. Kaal, Stephan D. Meyer, Universal Digital Law Codex (UDLC) (2025). SSRN: https://ssrn.com/abstract=5886342",
   "datePublished": "2025",
   "claim_type": "design",
   "confidence": "asserted",
   "is_failure_mode": false,
   "scope_conditions": [
    "unless otherwise stipulated in the DAO Agreement"
   ],
   "source_pdf_sha256": "dc456a1ce2ea4a356dbcb35dc900ec36be94b8c9b6da4a2c8c268d6301f66359",
   "status": "current"
  },
  {
   "@type": "Claim",
   "@id": "https://wulfkaal.github.io/claims/5886342-036",
   "identifier": "kaal:claim:5886342-036",
   "text": "Where an external claim is brought against a DAO member for actions taken in good faith on behalf of the DAO and within its mandate, the DAO indemnifies that member out of the treasury, with no indemnification beyond the treasury and none where the member acted with gross negligence, wilful misconduct or bad faith.",
   "abstract": "(3) If an external claim is brought against a DAO Member for actions undertaken in good faith on be-",
   "citation": "Furrer Andreas, Wulf A. Kaal, Stephan D. Meyer, Universal Digital Law Codex (UDLC) (2025). SSRN: https://ssrn.com/abstract=5886342",
   "datePublished": "2025",
   "claim_type": "design",
   "confidence": "asserted",
   "is_failure_mode": false,
   "scope_conditions": [
    "action taken in good faith and within the DAO mandate",
    "indemnification is limited to the DAO treasury",
    "no indemnity for gross negligence, wilful misconduct or bad faith"
   ],
   "source_pdf_sha256": "dc456a1ce2ea4a356dbcb35dc900ec36be94b8c9b6da4a2c8c268d6301f66359",
   "status": "current"
  }
 ],
 "description": "11 claims in the published works of Wulf A. Kaal carry the concept tag 'liability'. Derived node: a roster, not an adjudicated definition."
}